1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives
1.2 How Complex is Groundwater Tracing and Can I Do It?
1.3 The Five Dyes Discussed in this Book
1.4 Groundwater Tracing is Applicable to Many Hydrogeologic Settings
1.5 A Major Supreme Court Ruling Based on Dye Tracing Results
1.6 How Much Dye is Needed for Groundwater Traces?
1.7 Relevance of Tracer Studies
1.8 Summary
2 FLUORESCENT TRACER DYES
2.1 introduction
2.2 Fluorescence
2.3 Dye Nomenclature and Its Importance
2.4 Health and Safety Issues
2.5 Minimal Regulatory Controls
2.6 Dye Mixtures
2.7 Dyes in Different Matrixes
2.8 Important Characteristics of Fluorescent Dyes
2.8.1 High Detectability
2.8.2 Stability in the Environment
2.8.3 influence of Redox Condition
2.8.4 Tracing in Non Neutral pH Water
2.8.5 Temperature
2.8.6 Sorption to Earth and Organic Materials
2.8.7 Retardation Factors
2.8.8 Destruction by Sunlight
2.8.9 Mass Balance Calculations
2.8.10 Reasonable Cost
2.9 Summary
3 SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS FOR TRACER DYES
3.1 Background Fluorescence
3.2 Sampling and analysis Approaches
3.2.1 Water Samples
3.2.2 Fluorescence Measuring Field instruments
3.2.3 Activated Carbon Sampling
3.2.4 Assessment of Tracer Dye Adsorption and Effectiveness of Carbon Samplers
3.3 Desirable Features of Activated Carbon Sampling
3.3.1 Activated Carbon Samplers Provide Continuous and Cumulative Sampling
3.3.2 Decrease the Amount of Dye Needed
3.3.3 Decrease the Risk of Visibly Colored Water
3.3.4 Improve Determination of First Arrival Time and Identify All Receptors
3.3.5 Lower Cost of Tracing Projects
3.3.6 Adequacy of Activated Carbon Sampling
3.4 Handling of Collected Samples
3.5 Sample Preparation
3.5.1 Water Samples
3.5.2 Carbon Samplers
3.6 Analysis of Water and Carbon Samplers
3.7 Summary
4 DESIGNING TRACES: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Study Plans
4.2 Important Study Design Considerations Requiring Particular Care
4.2.1 Purpose and Objectives of the Study
4.2.2 Identification of Dye introduction Points
4.2.3 How Dyes will be Introduced
4.2.4 Selection of Dyes and Dye Quantities
4.2.5 Identification of Sampling Points
4.2.6 Routine Sampling
4.2.7 Sampling Frequency and Duration
4.2.8 Background Sampling
4.3 Mass Balance Calculations
4.4 Aquifer Characterization and Remedial System Design
4.5 Well Development and Purging
4.6 Summary
5 STRATEGIES FOR SOME COMMON TYPES OF TRACES
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Recharge Area Delineations and Vulnerability Assessments
5.2.1 Study Designs
5.2.2 Flush Water for Dye Introductions
5.2.3 Selection of Sampling Stations
5.2.4 Vulnerability Assessments
5.3 Reservoir Sites and Leaking Impoundment Investigations
5.4 Public Water Supplies
5.5 Active or Planned Mines
5.5.1 Zone of Influence Delineations
5.5.2 Identification of Water Sources for Inflowing Water
5.5.3 Evaluation of Wastewater Disposal Options
5.5.4 Evaluation of Waste Rock Disposal Areas
5.5.5 Identification of Off Site Springs and Streams that might be Impacted
5.5.6 Mine Drainage Planning
5.6 Closed or Abandoned Mines
5.7 Industrial Sites
5.8 Waste Sites
5.8.1 Background Sampling
5.8.2 Dye introductions and Sampling
5.9 Summary
6 EXERCISES
7 REFERENCES
8 BOXES
Box 1 Case History 1: Trace from a Gas Station Tank Pit to a Well, Arkansas, USA
Box 2 Case History 2: Traces from on Site Sewage Systems to Marine Shellfish Beds, Washington State, USA
Box 3 Case History 3: Long Distance Traces to Big Spring, Missouri, USA
Box 4 Case History 4: Tracing of Sewage Effluent from Disposal Wells to Springs on the Floor of the Pacific Ocean, Hawaii, USA
Box 5 Case History 5: Groundwater Traces in East Snake Plain Aquifer, Idaho, USA
Box 6 Case History 6: Trace from Drainage Ditch to Municipal Well, Walkersville, Maryland, USA
Box 7 Case History 7: Post Spill Trace from Ruptured Sewer Trunk to Municipal Wells, Walkersville, Maryland, USA
Box 8 Case History 8: Traces from Monitoring Wells to Production Well in Glacial Outwash, South Dakota, USA
Box 9 Case History 9: Deaminoalkylation of Sulforhodamine B in a Trace at Ocala, Florida, USA
Box 10 Case History 10: Impacts of Acidic Water from an Abandoned Metal Mine on Tracer Dyes, California, USA
Box 11 Case History 11: Comparison of Fluorescein and Rhodamine WT Performance in Traces to Water Supply Wells, Arkansas, USA
Box 12 Case History 12: Deterioration of Fluorescein in Water Samples Containing Oil Field Brine, Texas, USA
Box 13 Case History 13: Failure of Carbon Samplers to Detect Fluorescein in Sampling Beneath Tailing Ponds, Peru
Box 14 Case History 14: Results of Ten Long-Distance Groundwater Traces to Big Spring, Missouri, USA
Box 15 Case History 15: Traces to Barton Springs, Texas, USA, that did not Result in Visually Colored Water
Box 16 Case History 16: Trace to Municipal Well that Resulted in Visually Colored Water, Miami, Florida, USA
Box 17 Case History 17: Long Distance Traces to Multiple Wells in a Deep Fractured Rock Aquifer, Basin and Range Province, Southwestern USA
Box 18 Case History 18: Results from Traces Eighteen Years Apart at a Waste Site, Maryland, USA
Box 19 Case History 19: Tracing Poultry Processing Wastes to Water Supply Wells, Arkansas, USA
Box 20 Case History 20: Long Duration Sampling for Dyes in a Karst Area, Nevada, USA
Box 21 Case History 21: Results when Two Dyes were introduced at the Same Point and Time, Arkansas, USA
Box 22 Case History 22: Groundwater Trace from Municipal Sewage Ponds to a River, Montana, USA
Box 23 Case History 23: Tracing to Determine Time-Of-Travel for Leakage through an Earth Fill Dam, Arizona, USA
Box 24 Case History 24: Dye Tracing to Test for Leakage from an Earth Fill Dam, Texas, USA
Box 25 Case History 25: Trace to Determine Time of Travel for Water from a Highway to Endangered Species Habitat, Missouri, USA
Box 26 Case History 26: Background Sampling at a Waste Site where Multiple Dyes had Previously been Used, Tennessee, USA
Box 27 Case History 27: First Successful Groundwater Trace to Big Spring, Missouri, USA
Box 28 Case History 28: Delineating the Recharge Area for Mitch Hill Spring, Arkansas, USA
Box 29 Case History 29: Determining Groundwater Travel Rates to Silver Springs, Florida, USA
Box 30 Case History 30: Tracing to Evaluate a Proposed Water Supply Reservoir Near Joplin, Missouri, USA
Box 31 Case History 31: Aquifer Vulnerability Mapping for Planned Waste Rock Dumps, antamina Mine, Peru
Box 32 Case History 32: Groundwater Travel Rates in Fractured Rock Units with Polymetallic Ores, Peru
Box 33 Case History 33: Tracing in Abandoned Zinc–Lead Mines under Joplin, Missouri, USA
Box 34 Case History 34: Muddy Creek Trace, West Virginia, USA
Box 35 Case History 35: Groundwater Tracing at a former Iron Mine, Virginia, USA
9 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS
10 NOTATIONS
11 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
