1 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROGEOLOGY
1.1 The Properties Of Water
1.2 Distribution Of Water On The Earth
1.3 The Hydrologic Cycle
1.3.1 Systems
1.3.2 Cycles
1.3.3 Overview of the Hydrologic Cycle
1.4 Groundwater
1.4.1 Distribution of Water in the Subsurface
1.4.2 Recharge and Discharge
1.4.3 Groundwater Flow
1.4.4 Aquifers
2 POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY IN SUBSURFACE FLUIDS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fluid Energy
2.2.1 What do we mean by Energy?
2.2.2 The Bernoulli Equation
2.2.3 Hydraulic Head and Hydraulic Potential
2.2.4 Physical Description of the Components of Head
2.2.5 Distribution of Head (i.e., fluid energy) in a 3 D Aquifer
2.2.6 Why Do We Care About This?
3 POROUS MEDIA
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Porosity
3.2.1 Density
3.2.2 Moisture Content
3.2.3 Geologic Materials and Implications for Fluid Flow
3.3 Permeability
3.3.1 Darcy’s Law
3.3.2 What Does This Mean?
3.3.3 Permeability for Other Fluids
3.3.4 Other Famous Equations Analogous to Darcy’s Law
3.3.5 The Limits of Darcy’s Law
3.3.6 Measuring Permeability
3.3.7 Fluid Velocity
3.3.8 Permeability Distributions in Aquifers
3.3.9 Statistical Distribution
4 FLOW EQUATIONS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Equations: A General Discussion
4.3 Darcy’s Law
4.4 Groundwater Flow Equations
4.4.1 Differential Equations
4.4.2 What Does This Mean in Conceptual Terms?
4.4.3 How Do We Solve These Equations?
5 STORAGE PARAMETERS AND AQUIFER CONDITIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Aquifers
5.3 Storage Parameters
5.3.1 Confined Aquifers—A Conceptual Understanding
5.3.2 Confined Aquifers—A Mathematical Understanding
5.3.3 Unconfined Aquifers
6 MORE ON FLOW EQUATIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Steady State Versus Transient Groundwater Flow
6.2.1 Steady State Flow
6.2.2 Transient Flow
6.3 Flow Calculations and Applications of the Flow Equation
6.3.1 Steady State Flow in a Confined Aquifer
6.3.2 Steady State Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer
6.3.3 Flow Lines and Flow Nets
7 WELL HYDRAULICS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Background Information on Wells
7.2.1 Basic Well Construction
7.2.2 Well Development
7.3 Well Hydraulics
7.3.1 Horizontal Radial Flow
7.4 The Theis Equation
8 AQUIFER TESTING
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Well Hydraulics—A Quick Review
8.3 Aquifer Tests and Ideal Drawdown Curves
8.3.1 Multi Well Aquifer Test
8.3.2 Drawdown Curves
8.4 Aquifer Test Analysis
8.4.1 The Theis Curve Matching Method for Non Leaky (i.e., fully confined) Aquifers
8.4.2 Leaky Confined and Unconfined Methods
8.5 Simplification Of The Theis Equation
8.5.1 Time Drawdown Method
8.5.2 Distance Drawdown Method
8.6 Single Well Aquifer Tests
8.6.1 Limitations of Single Well Tests
8.7 Well Loss and Well Efficiency
8.7.1 Drawdown and Fluid Energy
8.7.2 Specific Capacity and Step Rate Tests
8.7.3 Example step rate test with analysis
8.8 Slug Tests
8.8.1 Test Procedure
8.8.2 Potential Problems with Slug Tests
8.9 Multiple Wells, Boundaries, And Image Wells
8.9.1 Superposition 96
8.9.2 Use of Image Wells to Represent Boundaries
9 GROUNDWATER FLOW SYSTEMS
9.1 Review of Sections 1 to 8
9.2 Characteristics of Flow Systems
9.2.1 Boundary Conditions
9.2.2 Recharge
9.2.3 Discharge
9.2.4 Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
9.2.5 Relationship between Topography and Flow Systems
10 FLOW MODELING
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Models: A General Definition and Specific Details
10.2.1 Why Do We Use Process Models?
10.3 Specific Types of Groundwater Flow Models
10.3.1 Qualitative Models
10.3.2 Conceptual Hydrogeological Models
10.3.3 Physical or Analog Models
10.3.4 Mathematical Models
10.4 The Method of Finite Differences
10.5 An Introduction to Modflow
11 GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY
11.1 Introduction
11.2 First, a Little Background Chemistry
11.2.1 Basic Chemistry Concepts and Definitions
11.2.2 Atomic Mass and the Mole
11.2.3 Concentrations of Solutions
11.3 Water Analysis and Naturally Occurring Dissolved Species
11.3.1 Basic Chemical Parameters
11.4 A Little About Chemical Reactions
11.5 Inferences About Groundwater Flow Systems
11.6 Graphical Representations of Geochemical Data
11.6.1 Piper Diagrams
11.6.2 Stiff Diagrams
11.6.3 Case study: Using Geochemical Diagrams to Identify a Contamination Source
11.6.4 Schoeller Diagrams
11.7 Evaluation of Water Quality Data
11.8 Additional References
12 MASS TRANSPORT
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mass Transport in Groundwater
12.2.1 Advection
12.2.2 Dispersion
12.3 Reactions and Retardation
12.4 Mass Transport Equations
12.5 Management of Groundwater Contamination
12.5.1 Capture Zone Analysis
13 SURFACE WATER
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Basics of Surface Water
13.3 Evaporation, Transpiration, and Precipitation
13.3.1 Evaporation
13.3.2 Transpiration
13.3.3 Evapotranspiration
13.3.4 Precipitation
13.4 What Happens When it Rains?
13.5 Streams
13.5.1 Discharge
13.5.2 Manning Equation
13.5.3 Stream Hydrographs
14 UNSATURATED ZONE
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Distribution of Water in the Shallow Subsurface
14.2.1 Saturation
14.2.2 Capillary Forces
14.3 Movement of Water in the Vadose Zone
14.3.1 Moisture Content
14.3.2 Pore–Water Tension
14.4 Theory of Flow in an Unsaturated Porous Medium
14.5 Studying the Unsaturated Zone: Instruments and Techniques
15 CONSOLIDATION AND SUBSIDENCE
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Review of Elastic Response in A Confined Aquifer
15.3 States of Stress in the Earth’S Crust
15.4 Compressibility and Storage Parameters
15.5 Land Subsidence
16 FLOW IN NON POROUS MEDIA
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Conceptualizing Fractured Media
16.3 Fracture Properties
16.3.1 Orientation
16.3.2 Aperture
16.3.3 Length, Width, and Depth
16.3.4 Spacing and Density
16.3.5 Connectivity
16.4 Formation of Fractures
16.5 Hydraulic Properties of Fractures
16.5.1 Porosity
16.5.2 Permeability
16.6 Modeling Fluid Flow in Fractures
16.6.1 Parallel Plate Model
16.6.2 Discrete Fracture Model
16.6.3 Stochastic Models
16.6.4 Double Porosity Models
16.6.5 Equivalent Porous Media
16.6.6 Equivalent Porous Media with Fracture Domains
16.7 Influence of Fractures on Fluid Flow and Mass Transport
17 GROUNDWATER IN VARIOUS GEOLOGIC SETTINGS
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Basic Classification of Hydrogeologic Environments
17.3 Alluvium
17.3.1 Alluvial Fans
17.3.2 Deltas
17.3.3 Floodplain/river Valley Deposits
17.4 Glacial Deposits
17.5 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks—Sandstone/Shale
17.6 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks—Carbonates and Evaporites
17.7 “Hard” Rocks
18 WRAP-UP
18.1 PART 1: Fundamentals
18.2 Part 2: Related Topics
19 EXERCISES
20 REFERENCES
21 BOXES
Box 1 – Derivation of the Radial Flow Equation
22 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS
23 THOUGHT QUESTIONS ANSWERED
24 NOTATIONS
25 ABOUT THE AUTHOR