1 Introduction
1.1 Topics Discussed in this Book
1.2 Exercises Pertinent to Section 1
2 A Brief History of the Petroleum Industry
2.1 Introduction to History of the Petroleum Industry
2.2 Modern Petroleum Industry
2.3 2021 UN Climate Change Summit: COP26, Glasgow, Scotland
2.4 Exercises Pertinent to Section 2
3 Drilling, Completion, and Fluid Production from Petroleum Wells
3.1 Introduction to Drilling, Completion and Production
3.2 Well Drilling
3.3 Well Completion
3.4 Petroleum Production
3.5 Well Abandonment
4 Produced Water from Conventional Petroleum Sources of Energy
4.1 Introduction to Water from Conventional Sources
4.2 Historical Perspective on the Volume and Management of Produced Water
4.3 Environmental Quality Regulations
4.4 Irrigation Water Quality Criteria
4.4.1 Salinity Hazard
4.4.2 Sodium Hazard
4.4.3 pH and Alkalinity
4.4.4 Specific Ion Toxicity
4.5 Government Regulations to Protect Groundwater
4.6 Exercises Pertinent to Section 4
5 Fluid Production from Unconventional Sources of Energy
5.1 Introduction to Water from Unconventional Sources
5.2 Volume and Composition of Fracturing Fluids
5.3 Flowback Water
5.4 Permian Basin: Water Challenges for Unconventional Production
5.5 Environmental Impacts: Water Use and Waste Water Disposal Challenges
5.6 Oil Sands
5.6.1 Water Management
5.7 Exercises Pertinent to Section 5
6 Inorganic Chemical Composition of Produced Water
6.1 Introduction to Inorganic Composition of Produced Water
6.2 Field and Laboratory Methods and Procedures
6.3 Produced Water from Gas Wells
6.4 Information from Wire line Logs
6.5 Geochemical Data from the Same Formation Using Four Sampling Methods
6.5.1 Results and Discussion
6.6 Inorganic Chemical Composition of Produced Water: A Basin and Country Scale Perspective
6.6.1 Culling Criteria for Standard Formation Water
6.6.2 Statistical Classification of Elements in Produced Water
6.6.3 Salinity
6.6.4 Major Elements
6.6.5 Minor Elements
6.6.6 Trace Elements
6.6.7 Mineral Saturation Indices
6.7 Inorganic Chemical Composition of Produced Water: A Field Scale Perspective
6.7.1 Water Salinity
6.7.2 Cations in Produced Water
6.7.3 Control of Cation Concentrations
6.7.4 Chemical Geothermometry and Barometry
6.7.5 Major Anions in Produced Water
6.7.6 Metal Rich Brine
6.7.7 Geochemical Modeling of Ore Fluids
6.8 The Influence of Shale and Other Geologic Membranes
6.9 Secular Variations in Seawater Chemistry: Impact on Composition of Basinal Brine
6.10 Exercises Pertinent to Section 6
7 Organic Compounds in Produced Water
7.1 Introduction to Organic Composition
7.2 Monocarboxylic Acid Anions
7.3 Dicarboxylic Acid Anions
7.4 Other Reactive Organic Species
7.5 Origin of Major Reactive Organic Species
7.6 Toxicity of Produced Water and Crude Oil Releases
7.6.1 Toxicity Resulting from Crude Oil and Organic Chemicals
7.6.2 Toxicity Resulting from Inorganic Chemicals
7.7 Exercises Pertinent to Section 7
8 Isotopic Composition of Produced Water
8.1 Introduction to Isotopic Composition
8.2 Water Isotopes
8.2.1 Formation Water Derived from Holocene Meteoric Water
8.2.2 Formation Water Originating from “Old” Meteoric Water
8.2.3 Formation Water of Connate Marine Origin
8.2.4 Bittern Connate Water Associated with Evaporites
8.2.5 Brine of Mixed Origin
8.3 Isotopic Composition of Solutes
8.3.1 Boron Isotopes
8.3.2 Lithium Isotopes
8.3.3 Carbon Isotopes
8.3.4 Sulfur Isotopes
8.3.5 Chlorine Isotopes
8.3.6 Bromine Isotopes
8.3.7 Strontium Isotopes
8.3.8 Calcium Isotopes
8.4 Traditional and Nontraditional Isotopes
8.5 Radioactive Isotopes and Age Dating
8.6 Exercises Pertinent to Section 8
9 Geochemistry of Produced Water in Basins with Salt Domes
9.1 Introduction to Water Geochemistry near Salt Domes
9.2 Geologic Setting of the Gulf of Mexico Basin
9.3 Chemical Composition of Water Associated with Salt Domes
9.3.1 Salt, Salinity, and Hydrogeology
9.3.2 Salt Dissolution: Bay Marchand Salt Dome
9.3.3 Salt Dissolution: Welsh Salt Dome
9.3.4 Regional Variations in Salinity
9.4 Geochemical Composition of Gulf of Mexico Formation Water
9.4.1 Chemical Composition of Formation Water at Individual Salt Structures
9.4.2 Effect of Salt Dissolution on Groundwater Resources
9.5 Exercises Pertinent to Section 9
10 Field Studies of Groundwater Contamination by Produced Water and Petroleum
10.1 Case Study 1: Groundwater Contamination by a Crude Oil Spill
10.1.1 Remediation at the Bemidji Site
10.1.2 Results and Discussion
10.2 Case Study 2: Groundwater Contamination by Produced Water and Petroleum at Osage Sites, Oklahoma
10.2.1 Introduction
10.2.2 Site Investigations
10.2.3 Case Study 2A: Groundwater Contamination at an Active Oil Field
10.2.4 Case Study 2B: Groundwater Contamination at a Legacy Site
10.3 Case Study 3: Potential Effects of Cation Exchange on the Composition and Mobility of Produced Water
10.3.1 Site History
10.3.2 Field Techniques
10.3.3 Soil Data
10.3.4 Multicomponent Cation Exchange
10.3.5 Calculated Pore Water Compositions
10.3.6 Composition of Adsorbed Cations as a Function of Anionic Charge and Salinity
10.3.7 Discussion
10.4 Case Study 4: Limitations on the Use of Water Levels to Infer Directions of Fluid Flow in Variable Density Groundwater Systems-a Field Example
10.4.1 Site Location and History
10.4.2 Site Geology
10.4.3 Extent of Saline Contamination near Pits
10.4.4 Total Lateral Extent of Saline Contamination
10.4.5 Site Hydrology: Constant Fluid Density Model
10.4.6 Site Hydrology: Variable Density Considerations
10.4.7 Site Hydrology: Conceptual Model for Site
10.5 Exercises Pertinent to Section 10
11 Geologic Storage of CO2: Environmental Impacts on Potable Groundwater
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sea Level Rise from Global Warming
11.3 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
11.3.1 Concept of Hubs
11.3.2 Field Scale Demonstration Projects of Geologic Storage of CO2
11.4 Carbon Dioxide for EOR and Other Uses
11.5 Monitoring CO2 and Brine Leakage from Storage Sites
11.5.1 Subsurface Monitoring at the Frio Site, Texas
11.5.2 Near Surface Monitoring at the ZERT Site, Bozeman, Montana
11.5.3 Dissolved Inorganic Chemicals
11.5.4 Carbon Isotopes
11.6 Potential Environmental Impacts and Health Risks
11.6.1 Environmental Impacts
11.6.2 Health and Safety Concerns
11.7 Exercises Pertinent to Section 11
12 Summary and Wrap Up
12.1 Summary of the Three Major Parts of this Book
12.2 The Importance of Produced Water
12.2.1 The Composition of Produced Water
12.3 Future Research
13 Exercises
14 References
15 Boxes
16 Exercise Solutions
17 About the Authors
